BUILDING ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

According to Dessler there are following guildlines to implement management system to solve the OC.

Commit to people first value: put it in writing in writing, hire the right kind manager, and walk the talk.

Clarify and communicate your mission: clarify the mission and ideology; make it charismatic, use value based hiring practices, stress value based orientation and traning build the tradition

Guarantee Organizational Justics: have a comprehensive grievance producers; provide for extensive two way communication.

Create a sense of community: Build value based homogeneity; share and share alike, emphasize barn raising, cross utilization, and team work get together.

Support employee development: commit to actualizing; provide first year job challenge, enrich and empower, promote from within, provide developmental activities, provide employee security without guarentees.

SPECIFIC EMPLOYEE ATTITUDE: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Definition (Robbins):

Organizational commitment is the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

Organizational commitment is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.

Professor John Meyer at the University of Western Ontario and his colleagues have identified and developed measures for three types of commitment:

Affective commitment: An individual’s relationship to the organization: his or her emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization.

Normative commitment:The obligation an individual feels to staying with the organization.

Continuance commitment: An individual’s calculation that it is in his or her best interest to stay with the organization based on the perceived costs of leaving the organization.

OUTCOMES OF JOB SATISFACTION

1. Satisfaction and productivity:

 Happy workers are not necessarily productive workers—the evidence suggests that productivity is likely to lead to satisfaction.

At the organization level, there is renewed support for the original satisfaction-performance relationship. It seems organizations with more satisfied workers as a whole are more productive organizations.

2. Satisfaction and absenteeism:

We find a consistent negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism. The more satisfied you are, the less likely you are to miss work.

 It makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work, but other factors have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient. For example, you might be a satisfied worker, yet still take a “mental health day” to head for the beach now and again.

3. Satisfaction and turnover:

 Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover, but the correlation is stronger than what we found for absenteeism.

Other factors such as labor market conditions, expectations about alternative job opportunities, and length of tenure with the organization are important constraints on the actual decision to leave one’s current job.

 Evidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction-turnover relationship is the employee’s level of performance.

4. Organizational citizenship Behaviour:

Discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employee’s formal job requirements and is not usually rewarded, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization.

Individuals who are high in OCB will go beyond their usual job duties, providing performance that is beyond expectations.

More recently OCB has been associated with the following workplace behaviours: “altruism, conscientiousness, loyalty, civic virtue, voice, functional participation, sportsmanship, courtesy, and advocacy participation.”

 Recent work by York University professors Sabrina Salamon and Yuval Deutsch suggest that OCB may be a way for individuals to signal to managers and co-workers abilities that might not be immediately observable.

Some evidence, however, suggests that satisfaction does influence OCB, but through perceptions of fairness.

Recent research suggests that OCB can be applied cross-culturally, although the exact form of OCB might be different in non–North American countries.

IMPORTANT DIMENESION OF JOB SATISFACTION

Locke and Lathan (1976) give a comprehensive definition of job satisfaction as pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experience. Job satisfaction is a result of employee's perception of how well their job provides those things that are viewed as important. According to (Mitchell and Lasan, 1987), it is generally recognized in the organizational behaviour field that job satisfaction is the most important and frequently studied attitude. While Luthan (1998) posited that there are three important dimensions to job satisfaction:

Job satisfaction is an emotional response to a job situation. As such it cannot be seen, it can only be inferred.

Job satisfaction is often determined by how well outcome meet or exceed expectations. For instance, if organization participants feel that they are working much harder than others in the department but are receiving fewer rewards they will probably have a negative attitudes towards the work, the boss and or coworkers. On the other hand, if they feel they are being treated very well and are being paid equitably, they are likely to have positive attitudes towards the job.

Job satisfaction represents several related attitudes which are most important characteristics of a job about which people have effective response. These to Luthans are: the work itself, pay, promotion opportunities, supervision and coworkers.

The job dimensions that account for job satisfaction according to Smith, Kendal & Hulin, are:

  the work itself

 pay

promotions

 supervision

 coworkers

3. Satisfaction and turnover

It has been found that employees who are not satisfied with their jobs will have high turnover. Employees who are satisfied will not have high turnover. Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover but the co-relation is stronger than what we found in absenteeism. Employee performance is a moderating factor of the satisfaction—Turnover relationship. In recent times a phenomenon amongst the software engineers whose performance is high; their turnover has been noticed as high because of competition for personal growth. Organization lures the competent person for their organizational growth.

Organization cares for such high performers and their retention. Poor performers do not leave the organization for fear of lack of job opportunity outside.

2. Satisfaction and absenteeism

There is an inverse relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism. When workers are more satisfied the absenteeism is low. When satisfaction level is low absenteeism tends to be high. There are certain moderating variables like sick leave and degree to which people feel that their jobs are important. Where there is a provision for sick leave, employees would take the benefit and absent themselves. As far as the importance of work is concerned, it has been observed that people attend to their work when it is important to accomplish.

Employees having high satisfaction would not necessarily result in to low absenteeism but those having low satisfaction level would definately have high absenteeism.

EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION ON PERFORMANCE

1. Satisfaction and productivity

Based on research carried out in Hawthorne studies, further research to prove that “happy workers are productive” was carried out, which has been proved negative. Based on the conclusion of Hawthorne studies, managers began their efforts to make their employees happier by improving work conditions, providing Laissez-faire type of leadership, expanding various facilities to the workers, but it has been found that there is no direct relationship between happiness and productivity. Robins concluded that productive workers are likely to be happy workers. Further research on the subject suggests that organization having happy workers might have increased productivity. On individual level it may not be true due to complexity of environment, work processes, various systems and sub systems having impact on the individual employee. But it can be said from organizational point of view that organization that are able to evolve such policies that make employees happy bound to have improved productivity. V.H. Vroom3. Productivity is considered as reward for hard work which is due to high level of satisfaction. However globalisation, speed of machines and knowledge explosion, impact of media on workers, social awareness and high expectations of employees to meet social obligations are important factors to ensure high satisfaction level of employees. While evolving industrial practices, above factors should be considered favourably and employee growth achieved so that organizations grow automatically.

Factors determining job Satisfaction

There are number of dimensions which effect job satisfaction. Value system possessed by an individual and the culture supporting the value system in the organization can be called as an important and basic for job satisfaction. However some of the important factors that determine job satisfaction of the employees in the organization is as under: -

1. Work Content: 

Content of the work itself is a major source of satisfaction. The work must be challenging. It should lend itself opportunities to use employee skills, ability and experience. The content of the work should be encouraging and interesting and have variety inbuilt in it so that it is not boring. Positive feedback from the job and autonomy has been considered to be important for motivation of employees. Too tough or job having two little challenge brings frustration and feeling of failure hence the job should be moderately tough so that the individual has to stretch his ability, imagination and skills. Once such job is completed successfully, the workers get a great sense of satisfaction.

2. Pay and promotion policy: 

Salary and wages play decisive part in the study of job satisfaction. Equitable rewards are multidimental in nature. The benefits are of varied nature namely pay, perks and rewards are associated with motivation of employees. Pay system and promotion policy of the organization must be just, unambiguous and in line with the prevalent industry norms and employee expectations. Employee wages and salary must ensure him the social status and should be able to fulfill the expectations. Individual must perceive salary administration and promotion policy as being fair. Organization should ensure that their policies are growth oriented and incremental in nature so that employees take on an additional responsibility voluntarily. Apart from financial benefits, organization must provide adequate perks and non-financial benefits so that they are motivated and display high level of satisfaction.

3. Supportive working condition: 

Working conditions have a modest but lasting effect on job satisfaction. Due to fast development of technology, it is necessary that the organizations are operating on upgraded technology, latest systems and procedures. The layout of work place must be ideally suited from operational point of view and the employees should display great degree of satisfaction. The place should be neat and clean with necessary facilities as per Factories Act. Light, ventilation, cleanliness, enough space for work, immediate availability of supervision, adequate latest tools and generally good surrounding will definitely add to job satisfaction. If the work place were closer to home, it would add to employee retention.

4. Work group: 

The concept of work group and work teams is more prevalent to day.

Work group of multi skilled persons with one goal will be able to function effectively if they are friendly and co-operative. The work group serves as a source of support, comfort, advice and assistance to individual worker. A good work group makes the job more enjoyable. The factor of work group support is essential for job satisfaction.

If the reverse conditions prevail, the people may not be able to get along with each other and the level of job satisfaction will be reduced.

5. Supervision: 

Supervision is one of the moderate factors, which affect job satisfaction. Qualified supervisors should be available for advice, guidance and problem solving. Supervisors should be placed close to the place of work and should be available. They should take personal interest in the affairs of employees both on personal and official level. Supervision is related to leadership. In Defence Services the leadership is so proactive that the leader carry on him details of each soldier under his command. The details include dependants of soldier’s family, their economic position, details of children, the class they study, home address and other demographic details, soldier take his boss as guide and philosopher who is always available to him for advice. Such supervision improves the morale and job satisfaction of employees. The concept of supervision has changed. What is in vogue and in practice to day is self-serviced teams and work group. The group prefers more freedom of work in relation to work hours, time management, frequent breaks between work hours and autonomy as long as job is completed in time. Flater organizational structure therefore has come into practice. Steps in command structure have reduced. There is a participative management and work has to meet the established standards in terms of quality and quantity. The levels might have been reduced but not the value of supervision as a factor of job satisfaction.

6. Personality job fit: 

Individuals should be assigned the job, that suits their interest.

Recently it has been seen that MBA graduates are satisfied with their job if they get the job related to the “specialisation” they have chosen during the MBA degree.

Persons having analytical approach should be assigned job in R&D department so that their level of job satisfaction increases.

JOB SATISFACTION

The study of Job satisfaction is one of most important factors in the study of human

behaviour in the organization. Job satisfaction focuses on employee attitude towards his job. It has three important dimensions:

(a) Job satisfaction can be measured by the emotional response to a job situation, hence it cannot be seen, and it can only be inferred.

(b) Job satisfaction is related to what you actually get as reward and what you expect to get. If the difference between the actual reward and expectation is minimum or negligible them a person will display a positive attitude and if there is wide difference between the two, a person will display a negative attitude towards his job and therefore the satisfaction level will be low.

(c) Job satisfaction is related to job dimensions. These can be expressed in terms of job content, remuneration, attitude of co-workers, and opportunity of growth that job is able to provide in terms of promotion and last but not the least the expert loyal and experienced leadership is available in terms of supervision.

SPECIFIC EMPLOYEE ATTITUDE: JOB SATISFACTION

Locke and Henne (1986) defined job satisfaction as the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the achievement of one’s job values in the work situation. According to Mottaz (1987), satisfaction with one’s job reflects a person’s affective response resulting from an evaluation of the total job situation. In sum, the job satisfaction construct can be considered to be a function of work-related rewards and values.

CHANGING ATTITUDES BY OVERCOMING BARRIERS

Providing New Information. Sometimes a dramatic change in attitude is possible only by providing relevant and adequate information to the person concerned. Scanty and incomplete information can be a major reason for brewing negative feeling and attitudes.

Use of Fear. Attitudes can be changed through the use of fear. People might resort to change their work habit for the fear of fear of unpleasant consequences. However, the degree of the arousal of fear will have to be taken into consideration as well.

Resolving Discrepancies. Whenever people face a dilemma or conflicting situation they feel confused in choosing a particular course of action. Like in the case where one is to choose from between two alternative courses of action, it is often become difficult for him to decide which is right for him. Even when he chooses one over the other, he might still feel confused. If someone helps him in pointing out the positive points in favour of the chosen course of action, he person might resolve his dilemma.

Influence of friends and peers. A very effective way of changing one’s attitude is through his friends and colleagues. Their opinion and recommendation for something often proves to be more important. If for example, they are all praise for a particular policy introduced in the work place, chances are high that an individual will slowly accept that even when he had initial reservations for that. Co-opting. If you want to change the attitude of somebody who belongs to a different group, it is often becomes very effective if you can include him in your own group. Like in the case of the union leader who are all the time vehemently against any management decision, can be the person who takes active initiative in implementing a new policy when he had participated in that decision making process himself.

BARRIERS TO CHANGING ATTITUDES

Employees’ attitudes can be changed and sometimes it is in the best interests of managements to try to do so. For example, if employees believe that their employer does not look after their welfare, the management should try to change their attitude and help develop a more positive attitude in them. However, the process of changing the attitude is not always easy. There are some barriers which have to be overcome if one strives to change somebody’s attitude. There are two major categories of barriers that come in the way of changing attitudes:

1. Prior commitment when people feel a commitment towards a particular course of action that has already been agreed upon and thus it becomes difficult for them to change or accept the new ways of functioning.

2. Insufficient information also acts as a major barrier to change attitudes. Sometimes people simply see any reason to change their attitude due to unavailability of adequate information.

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES

According to Katz, attitudes serve four important functions from the viewpoint of organizational behaviour. These are as follows.

A. The Adjustment Function:

Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work environment. Well-treated employees tend to develop a positive attitude towards their job, management and the organization in general while berated and ill treated organizational members develop a negative attitude. In other words, attitudes help employees adjust to their environment and form a basis for future behaviour.

B. Value-expressive:

 Express basic values, reinforce self-image. Eg: if you view yourself as a Catholic, you can reinforce that image by adopting Catholic beliefs and values. Eg: We may have a self-image of ourselves as an enlightened conservative or a militant radical, and we therefore cultivate attitudes that we believe indicate such a core value.

C. Knowledge:

attitudes provide meaningful, structured environment. In life we seek some degree of order, clarity, and stability in our personal frame of reference. Attitudes help supply us with standards of evaluation. Via such attitudes as stereotypes, we can bring order and clarity to the complexities of human life.

D. Ego-defensive :

Some attitudes serve to protect us from acknowledging basic truths about ourselves or the harsh realities of life. They serve as defense mechanisms. Eg: Those with feelings of inferiority may develop attitude of superiority.

Components of Attitude

(a) Cognitive component: Cognitive component of attitude is related to value statement. It consists of belief, ideas, values and other information that an individual may possess or has faith in. Quality of working hard is a value statement or faith that a manager may have.  For example, he says smoking is injurious to health.

(b) Affective component: Affective component of attitude is related to person’s feelings about another person, which may be positive, negative or neutral. I do not like Madan because he is not hard working, or I like Manmohan because he is hard working. It is an expression of feelings about a person, object or a situation.

For example, in an organization a personal report is given to the general manager. In report he point out that the sale staff is not performing their due responsibilities. The general manager forwards a written notice to the marketing manager to negotiate with the sale staff.

(c) Behavioral component: Behavioral component of attitude is related to impact of various situations or objects that lead to individual’s behaviour based on cognitive and affective components. I do not like Madan because he is not hard working is an affective component, I therefore would like to disassociate myself with him, is a behavioural component and therefore I would avoid Madan. Development of favourable attitude and good relationship with Manmohan is but natural. Individual’s favourable behaviour is an outcome of the fact that Manmohan is hardworking. Cognitive and affective components are bases for such behaviour. Former two components cannot be seen; only the behaviour component can be seen.

For example, before the production and launching process the product. Report is prepared by the production department which consists of their intention in near future and long run and this report is handed over to top management for the decision.

Former is important because it is a base for formation of attitude. These components are explained in Figure below.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDES

Difficult to measure- Indicated by behavior, reactions to individual situations, social values


May create inflexibility and stereotypes- Based on inconsistencies, incorrect assumptions or other false data


Demonstrated by behavior


Formed largely from the continuous process of socialization


Positive or negative


Once formed not easily changed


Takes a SEE, new conditions, new experience, and new information


Attitudes may be affected by age, position, and education


Persist- unless something is done to change them.


Can fall anywhere in a continuum-very favourable to very unfavourable.


are directed towards some objects about which a person has some feelings and beliefs

ATTITUDES

DEFINITIONS

Attitude is a tendency to act/think in certain ways either favourably or unfavourably concerning objects, people or situation. For example, if I say I am satisfied with my job, what actually I am doing is expressing my attitude towards the job. An attitude is the way a person feels about a person, a place, a thing, a situation or an idea. Attitude could be positive or negative. Attitude can be measured either by observing the action of the individual or simply asking him the questions about how he would behave in a particular situation.

An attitude is evaluating statements or judgments concerning objects, people or events (Robbins).

Attitudes are relatively lasting feelings, beliefs and behavioural tendencies directed towards specific people, groups, ideas, issues or objects (Hellriegel et al).

An attitude is the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some object in a favourable or an unfavourable manner.

An attitude is the predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts.

An attitude is Foundations of success.

NEGATIVE EMOTIONS

Lead to deviant work place behaviours. Employee deviance-voluntary actions that violate established norms and that threaten the organization, its members, or both.

Negative emotions can lead to a number of deviant workplace behaviours. Anyone who has spent much time in an organization realizes that people often engage in voluntary actions that violate established norms and threaten the organization, its members, or both. These actions are called employee deviance.They fall into categories such as production (leaving early, intentionally working slowly); property (stealing, sabotage); political (gossiping, blaming co-workers); and personal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal abuse).

Many of these deviant behaviours can be traced to negative emotions. For instance, envy is an emotion that occurs when you resent someone for having something that you don’t have but strongly desire. It can lead to malicious deviant behaviours. Envy, for example, has been found to be associated with hostility, “backstabbing,” and other forms of political behaviour, as well as with negatively distorting others’ successes and positively distorting one’s own accomplishments.

Types of emotions:

We can call the two types of emotions Negative and Positive. That is not so much as value judgment as it is a description of the main action of each group. Judging either as "good" or "bad" isn't very helpful.

Negative emotions express an attempt or intention to exclude. Strengthening one's own position at the expense of others. Keeping bad stuff away, destroying what is perceived as a threat. Negative emotions are fueled by an underlying fear of the unknown, a fear of the actions of others, and a need to control them or stop them to avoid being harmed.
Positive emotions express an attempt or an intention to Include. Taking the whole into consideration. Working on learning more viewpoints, interacting more with others, enjoying making things better. Positive emotions are fueled by an underlying desire for enjoyment and unity.
Negative emotions are, for example: apathy, grief, fear, hatred, shame, blame, regret, resentment, anger, hostility.
Positive emotions are, for example: interest, enthusiasm, boredom, laughter, empathy, action, curiosity.

EMOTIONS: OB PERSPECTIVE

Decision making: Emotions are best when they are left "out" of the decision making process.  Due to the fact that humans are emotional creatures, it would be foolish and unwise to advocate people to "get rid of their emotions". This is both unnecessary and unhealthy, for we all have emotions for a reason. However, there are times when our emotions must be keep in balance.  One such example of this is when we have to make decisions, particularly critical decisions. History shows that when people mix their emotions with decision making, they tend to make bad decisions, which in turn lead to severe consequences.

In general, when you have a decision to make, and you're emotional about it, it is best not to make the decision based on the dominant emotion you have at that moment, because this will generally lead to you making a decision that ends up hurting you in the long run. There is a time for emotions, but emotions should never play a factor in the decisions you make in life, for disaster usually follows.

Motivation: Emotions play an integral role in motivation. Individual differences in emotional tendencies interact with organizational events and social interactions to yield emotional reactions that importantly shape an individual’s goals and the persistence of effort in the face of obstacles. The influence of emotional reactions to organizational events, such as downsizing, may seriously weaken personal commitment to organizationally desired goals and, in turn, job performance.

Motivational processes also play an important role in the elicitation and expression of emotions. Theories of cognitive appraisal, for example, posit the critical importance of appraisals of personal significance for the elicitation of emotional responses. As such, the emotional significance of an event depends on the extent to which the event is appraised as relevant to the individual’s goal concerns.

Leadership: All leadership works – and has always worked – through emotions. Every undisputable leader has earned their reputation because their leadership was emotionally compelling to a larger or smaller group of followers. The leader of any group acts as the group’s emotional guide. And in today’s organisations a fundamental task of leaders is still emotional.

But leadership in corporations goes beyond reaching a short-term goal or ensuring that a job is well done. Leadership in corporations is also about driving the collective emotions in a positive direction – and avoiding or controlling deadly emotions. In addition to their required professional skills, the leaders and managers of the corporation also have leadership skills; the social and emotional competencies required to handle their own and other people’s emotions, and to drive these emotions in the right direction. If leaders fail to drive emotions in the right direction, everything else they do might not have the positive impact that they intended. 

Successful corporate leaders have the social and emotional intelligence required to make the emotions in their group work for – and not against – the interests of the organisation.

Interpersonal conflict: emotion plays a major role in triggering interpersonal conflict, people who do not have the emotional intelligence and does not know how to manage his emotions might enter into conflict with colleagues easy. Driven by negative emotions, different views can be enhanced by open argument, hidden sabotage and destructive office politics. Recognizing importance of emotional intelligence, multinational companies had invested in emotional intelligence training and training for their staff. They usually go with a deeper understanding of emotional intelligence, but not really in touch with their negative emotions.

Assessing and measuring Emotional Intelligence

Instruments used for measuring Emotional Intelligence

EQ-I (Bar-On, 1997): a self-report instrument to  assess those personal qualities that enabled some people to possess better emotional well-being than others.


Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1998):  a test of ability where the test-taker performs a series of tasks that are designed to assess the persons ability to perceive, identify, understand, and work with emotion.


 Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) (Goleman, 1998):  a 360 degree instrument, where people evaluate the individuals within an organization (Individual Feedback Reports). Or the organization as a whole (Work Force Audits). These audits can provide an organizational profile for any size group within the company. The Emotional Competence Inventory works with the 19/21 competencies described above (See under Five Domains of EI).

EI DIMENSIONS

• Self-awareness. Being aware of what you are feeling. It is exhibited by self-confidence, realistic self-assessment, and a self-deprecating sense of humor.

• Self-management. The ability to manage your own emotions and impulses. It is exhibited by trustworthiness and integrity, comfort with ambiguity, and openness to change.

• Self-motivation. The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures. It is exhibited by a strong drive to achieve, optimism, and high organizational commitment.

• Empathy. The ability to sense how others are feeling. It is exhibited by expertise in building and retaining talent, cross-cultural sensitivity, and service to clients and customers.

• Social skills. The ability to handle the emotions of others. It is exhibited by persuasiveness, and expertise in building and leading groups and teams.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to an assortment of non cognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures (Robbins).

EI is the ability to monitor your own and others emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to guide your thinking and actions (Mc Shane & Von Glinow).

EI differs from emotional labour because the latter is a job requirement (the demand to smile, express enthusiasm, etc.) while the former is regarded as a personality trait. A person with low EI may control his emotions because of a request from a manager (thus engaging in emotional labour), but might otherwise not do so.

Several studies suggest EI may play an important role in job performance. For instance, one study looked at the characteristics of Bell Labs engineers who were rated as stars by their peers. The scientists concluded that stars were better at relating to others. That is, it was EI, not academic IQ that characterized high performers.

Felt vs. Displayed Emotions

1. Emotional labor creates dilemmas for employees when their job requires them to exhibit emotions incongruous with their actual feelings. It is a frequent occurrence. For example, when there are people that you have to work with whom you find it very difficult to be friendly toward. You are forced to feign friendliness.

2. Felt emotions are an individual’s actual emotions.

3. Displayed emotions are those that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. They are learned.

4. Key—felt and displayed emotions are often different. This is particularly true in organizations, where role demands and situations often require people to exhibit emotional behaviors that mask their true feelings.

EMOTIONAL LABOUR

The term "emotional labour" was first defined by the sociologist Arlie Hochschild as the "management of feeling to create a publicly facial and bodily display"

The concept of emotional labour originally developed in relation to service jobs. Airline flight attendants, for instance are expected to be cheerful, funeral counselors sad, and doctors emotionally neutral. But today the concept of emotional labour seems relevant in almost every job. You’re expected, for example, to be courteous and not hostile in interactions with co-workers, and leaders are expected to draw on emotional labour to recharge the troops. Almost every great speech, for instance, contains a strong emotional component that stirs feelings in others.

As these studies show, however, managing emotions can take a toll when there is a discrepancy between the outward behaviour the person is required to display as part of his or her job and the inward feelings that the person has.85 Therefore, while emotional labour can have positive implications within the workplace, it can also have negative personal consequences when a person consistently hides real emotions behind a work “face.

EMOTIONS

The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word émouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e-means 'out' and movere means 'move' i.e. emotion means “to move through or out.”

The following are facts an account of emotions' must accommodate.

1. In the paradigm cases; emotions are felt. Furthermore, there is a strong inclination to identify the feeling with the emotion (analogously with: The feeling of a pain is the pain). But unlike pains, emotions are not always felt, being sometimes "subceived" and sometimes wholly beneath consciousness.

2. Emotions are intentional states, and have propositional objects in the sense that what the emotion is about, of, for, at, or to can in principle be specified propositionally.

3. Some emotions have typical physiological concomitants, some of which are to some degree felt; and people are sometimes inclined to identify the feeling of the emotion with the feeling of these changes.

4. Typically an emotion depends on the subject believing some state of affairs to obtain (for example, A would not fear this spider if he didn't believe it likely that the spider is harmful); but this is not always so: Sometimes we experience an emotion despite not believing its propositional con-tent.

5. Some emotions beget dispositions to kinds of actions; so references to such emotions are often a powerful way of explaining actions.

6. Emotions are typically experienced as unified states of mind, rather than as sets of components (for example, a belief + a desire + a physiological perturbation + some behavior).

Or simply, emotion is intense feelings that are directed at someone or something.

Related word with emotions

Feeling: The experiencing of affective and emotional states; "she had a feeling of euphoria"; "he had terrible feelings of guilt"; "I disliked him and the feeling was mutual"

Affect : A broad range of feelings that people experience. "This child impressed me as unusually mature"; "This behavior struck me as odd"

Moods : Are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus, "he was in a bad humor"

Emotions are different from moods, which are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus. Emotions are reactions to an object; they are not lasting personality traits. You show your emotions when you are “happy about something, angry at someone, afraid of something.” Moods, on the other hand, are not directed at an object. Emotions can turn into moods when you lose focus on the contextual object.

LIMITATIONS OF BEHAVIOURAL MODICFICATION PROGRAMME

Behaviour modification has been criticized on several grounds, its philosophy, methods and practicality. Because of the strong power of desired consequences, behavior modification may effectively force people to change their behaviour. In this way, it manipulates people and is inconsistent with humanistic assumptions that people want to be autonomous and self actualizing. Some critics do fear that behaviour modification gives too much power to the supervisors/managers and they put the question: who will control the controller?

Likewise, some critics are of the opinion that behaviour modification insults people intelligence. People could be treated like rats in a training box. But infact, people are intelligent, thinking, self-directed and self-controlled individuals who are capable of making their own judgements and choices and motivating themselves. Another limitation is that behavioural modification has limited applicability to complex jobs. For example- it is difficult to identify critical behaviours in the jobs of company lawyer, flight attendants

Behaviour Modification: An Efficacious tool of Shaping… and chief executive officers and reinforce them. This challenge may become more difficult as the economy becomes more and more service based.

Behavioural modification has basically overlooked people’s cognitive (judgment and choice) skills as active participants in the performance process. It has also minimally considered the influence of antecedent’s cues on their behaviour. These limitations have led to the emergence of social learning theory which is a more recent adaption of the behavior modification process.

In spites of the above limitations as indicated by critics, organizations are increasingly applying behavour modification as an efficacious tool of shaping/molding individual behaviour productive and supportive in the attainment of organizational goal.

Steps in OBM

Step 1:

The first step in OBM is to identify the performance-related behavioral events.  This behavior needs to have to components.

Behavior must be directly observe

Behavior must be related to performance

Step 2:

The second step in OBM is to measure the behavior.  Usually frequency counts are used.  The function served by measuring the behavior include:

 Indicates the severity of the behavioral problem

Graphing the frequency of the behavior helps to identify environmental consequences.

The graph also allows for intervention results to be compared to baseline behaviors.

Step 3:

The third step in OBM is the functional analysis of the behavior.  This involves breaking the behavior and environment down into the functional components: Antecedents(A) Behavior(B) and Consequences(C).  Methods of assessing the antecedents and consequences includes:

Observation of the situation allows for the change agent to list the possible cues and consequences.

Interviewing the performers or other persons in the environment is also useful at identifying the antecedents and consequences.

Examining the frequency graph allows for “celebrations” in the behavior to be linked to environmental events which will help maintain the behavior.

Step 4:

The fourth step in OBM is to evaluate and refine the intervention to ensure it is leading to performance improvement.  Use of reversal, multiple baseline, and control group experimental designs allow for this evaluation.

OB MODIFICATION

Organizational Behavior Management (OBM) is defined as the development and evaluation of performance procedures using the principles of behavior modification (Patrick & Riggar, 1985).  The focus of OBM is on improving individual and group performance through behavior alteration.  Usually the application of OBM requires direct observation of behaviors and tracking them over time.  Patrick et. al. (1985) reports successful use of OBM in the areas of training and development, problem identification, absenteeism and tardiness, personal assessment, and accountability and program evaluation.  

2. Partial Re-inforcement Schedule

In partial re-enforcement every positive act of individual is not re-enforced (rewarded). In this schedule individual’s behaviour is re-enforced after a long gap and his accumulated

behaviour is rewarded. It has been observed that partial re-enforcement has a fair chance of individual behaving in a positive and desired manner because he feels that sooner or later his work would be recognised. Partial re-inforcement has a wide application in the organizations. 

A. Fixed Interval Schedule

The re-inforcement is related to the hygiene factors or administrative factors of the organization like salary, organizational policy, interpersonal relationship, status and the like. In the interval schedule the critical factor is time. As a manager, one has to apply reinforcement schedule on a fix interval of time. Daily wagers will look forward to get their salary at the end of the day and those on piece rate of payment would work hard to earn maximum. Fixed interval re-inforcement is not very effective. The re-inforcement is of temporary nature and does not motivate individuals on a long-term basis.

B. Variable Interval Re-enforcement

Variable interval reinforcement schedules are employed when desired behaviors are reinforced after varying periods of time. Examples of variable interval schedules would be special recognition for successful performance and promotions to higher-level positions. This reinforcement schedule appears to elicit desired behavioral change that is resistant to extinction. Variable interval re-enforcement schedule generates higher rate of responses and is more consistent.

C. Fixed Ratio Schedule

Fixed ratio schedule is related to administration of reward system after the individual accomplishes a particular volume of work. A worker is paid or a re-inforcement is administered after manufacturing of particular pieces of product under piece rate of payment. The individual works hard and displays a sense of devotion to his work because of the proposed reward for which a particular quantity has to be manufactured. The response level under fixed ratio schedule is higher than under an Interval ratio schedule.

D. Variable Ratio Schedule

Variable ratio is similar to fix ratio schedule except that in variable ratio, quantity is not fixed. Re-inforcement is awarded to an individual based on the situation to situation. For example a sales person may be awarded a higher commission on the sales he made irrespective of volume of sales. The incentive may also be given based on number of successful sales calls made by the sales person. Variable ratio schedule has been most effective to modify individual behaviour or ensure sustenance of a particular behaviour.

The method draws a very rapid and positive response at a desirable level. This type of reinforcement is considered to be very effective tool to obtain willing obedience of subordinates in a particular situation. The impact largely would depend upon the timings and volume of work performed by the individuals in the organization and the skill of the moderator.