CONFLICT-DEFINITION

Conflict refers to a process in which one party (person or group) perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. Or

Conflict is a disagreement between two or more individuals or groups, with each individual or group trying to gain acceptance of its views or objective over others.

Conflict must be perceived by either of the parties. Stiff opposition due to incompatibility of organizational goals characterizes it. Conflict can also be caused due to difference about interpretation of facts or issues involved. Conflict takes an ugly turn and take a form of violence due to disagreement based on behavioral expectations. It could be covert or overt and can be seen when one observes violent acts of individual in organizations. We define conflict as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns.

A few points are worth reiterating before proceeding:

• A conflict is more than a mere disagreement - it is a situation in which people perceive a threat(physical, emotional, power, status, etc.) to their well-being. As such, it is a meaningful experience in people's lives, not to be shrugged off by a mere, "it will pass…" 

• Participants in conflicts tend to respond on the basis of their perceptions of the situation, rather than an objective review of it. As such, people filter their perceptions (and reactions) through their values, culture, beliefs, information, experience, gender, and other variables. Conflict responses are both filled with ideas and feelings that can be very strong and powerful guides to our sense of possible solutions.

• As in any problem, conflicts contain substantive, procedural, and psychological dimensions to be negotiated. In order to best understand the threat perceived by those engaged in a conflict, we need to consider all of these dimensions.

• Conflicts are normal experiences within the work environment. They are also, to a large degree,predictable and expectable situations that naturally arise as we go about managing complex and stressful projects in which we are significantly invested. As such, if we develop procedures for identifying conflicts likely to arise, as well as systems through which we can constructively manage conflicts, we may be able to discover new opportunities to transform conflict into a productive learning experience.

• Creative problem-solving strategies are essential to positive approaches to conflict management. We need to transform the situation from one in which it is 'my way or the highway' into one in which we entertain new possibilities that have been otherwise elusive.

CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

POWER TACTICS

Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.

• Reason
• Friendliness
• Coalition 
• Bargaining
• Assertiveness
• Higher authority
• sanctions

CONSEQUENCES OF POWER

• If used properly power is good to achieve organizational goals.
• According to lord action:
• Power tends to corrupt
• Absolute power corrupts absolutely

SOURCES OF POWER (Power Bases)

Reward

Reward power is a positive power which refers to the ability to get things done through others on the basis of one's power to grant rewards.

Coercive

Coercive power is based on fear and is the ability to influence another person through threats or fear of punishment

Legitimate

 Legitimate power depends on organizational position and authority. It refers to the power conferred by a person's organizational position

Expert

Expert power is derived from a person's expertise or specialized knowledge of a certain subject that is perceived as important to the organization

Referent  (Charismatic)

referent power is based on people's identification with a certain individual and their attempt to emulate his behavior. The person who acts as a model for reference has power over the person who emulates his behavior

POWER

POWER DEFINITION

Power is the Capacity of a person, team or organization to influence the behaviour of others.

Power has been defined as "the ability to influence and control anything that is of value to others." It is the ability to influence the behavior of other people in the organization and to get them to do what they otherwise would not have done.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR COPING WITH STRESS

stress relates to two categories of events. First the organizational structure and policy and second relating to personal development and growth that the job can provide. Following aspects must be carefully examined and evaluated for its effectiveness and implementation.

(a) Organizational goals must be in realms of achievement. Too much high goals not only put the employees under undue stress but also creates unhealthy work environment.

(b) Organizational polices should be clearly defined with particular reference to training and development, promotion, leave, wages and salary administration, discipline, incentives, etc.

(c) Authority and responsibility must be clearly defined by setting up reporting channels. Principle of unity of command should be adhared to.

(d) Organizational structure, redesigning of jobs and improved communication reduces stress.

(e) Corporate policies, physical work environment should be suitable for higher productivity.

(f) An updated systems and processes increases efficiency.

(g) Management must create an healthy working environment.

(h) Career plan for mangers must be developed and implemented in letter and spirit. Nothing discourages employees as bad developmental programs.

(i) Employees must be empowered. They should be provided with suitable time to time counselling by way of advice, reassurance, good communication, release of emotional tension and clarified thinking. Re-orientation is important to keep employees free of stress for increased productivity.

INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIES FOR COPING WITH STRESS

Time management. 

Many people manage their time poorly. The things we have to accomplish in any given day or week are not necessarily beyond completion if we manage our time properly. The well-organized employee, like the well organized student, can often accomplish twice as much as the person who is poorly organized. So understanding and using basic time management principles can help individuals cope better with tensions created by job demands.

A few of the more well-known time management principles are: 

(1) making daily lists of activities to be accomplished;

(2) prioritizing activities by importance and urgency; 

(3) scheduling activities according to the priorities set;

(4) knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding parts of your job during the high part of your cycle, when you are most alert and productive.

Physical activity. 

Noncompetitive physical exercise, such as aerobics, walking, jogging, swimming, and riding a bicycle, has long been recommended by physicians as a way to deal with excessive stress levels. These forms of physical exercise increase heart capacity, lower at-rest heart rate, provide a mental diversion from work pressures, and offer a means to “let off steam.”

Relaxation techniques. 

Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through relaxation techniques such as meditation, hypnosis,

and biofeedback. The objective is to reach a state of deep relaxation, where you feel physically relaxed, somewhat detached from the immediate environment, and detached from body sensations.37 Fifteen or 20 minutes a day of deep relaxation releases tension and provides a person with a pronounced sense of peacefulness. Importantly, significant changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and other physiological factors result from achieving the deep relaxation condition.

Building social supports. 

Having friends, family, or colleagues to talk to provides an outlet when stress levels become excessive. Expanding your social support network, therefore, can be a means for tension reduction. It provides you with someone to listen to your problems and to offer a more objective perspective on the situation. Research also demonstrates that social support moderates the stress burnout relationship.That is, high support reduces the likelihood that heavy work stress will result in job burnout.

IS WORK STRESS BAD?

Good Stress Versus Bad Stress

So if stress can be so bad for you, how can there be "good" or "positive" stress?

If you are suffering from extreme stress or long-term stress, your body will eventually wear itself down. But sometimes, small amounts of stress can actually be good.

Understanding your stress level is important. If nothing in your life causes you any stress or excitement, you may become bored or may not be living up to your potential. If everything in your life, or large portions of your life, cause you stress, you may experience health or mental problems that will make your behavior worse.

Recognizing when you are stressed and managing your stress can greatly improve your life. Some short-term stress -- for example what you feel before an important job presentation, test, interview, or sporting event -- may give you the extra energy you need to perform at your best. But long-term stress -- for example constant worry over your job, school, or family -- may actually drain your energy and your ability to perform well.

• Initially with rising stress  performance rises.
• This positive aspect of stress is Eustress
• At an optimum stress level performance is maximum
• Beyond the optimum point with increasing stress performance falls.
• This negative aspect of stress is distress.

BEHAVIOURAL CONSEQUENCES OF DISTRESS

• Low job performance
• More accident
• Faulty decisions
• Higher absenteeism
• Work place agression

Causes of Burnout

1. Work Estimation: Overwork is generally considered to be a major cause for burnout.

But it not so. Burnout take place in a chaotic, unstable environment. It often happens

when there is a confusion about duties and future managerial directions. Burnout

takes place when there is management by crisis. Low work estimation may also cause

burnout. When executives feel that there is no challenge and innovativeness in the

work, burnout take place.

2. Job Mismatch: It has been observed that executives choose and accept jobs which has

higher extrinsic reward like high salaries and power. These hygiene factors generally

fail to motivate executives for a longer time. Decision to choose extrinsic reward over

intrinsic rewards results in unhappiness. Job mismatch may be observed in personal

value and organizational value system and autonomy provided by organization in

work environment. Lack of gratification from the work generally leads to burnout.

BURNOUT

Burnout is a psychological response to “long-term exhaustion and diminished interest,” and may take months or years to bubble to the surface. First defined by American psychoanalyst Herbert J. Freudenberger in 1972, burnout is “a demon born of the society and times we live in and our ongoing struggle to invest our lives with meaning.” He goes on to say that burnout “is not a condition that gets better by being ignored. Nor is it any kind of disgrace. On the contrary, it’s a problem born of good intentions.” Another description in New York Magazine calls burnout "a problem that's both physical Job burnout is the process of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment resulting from pronged exposure to stress.

and existential, an untidy conglomeration of external symptoms and personal frustrations."

PSYSIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF DISTRESS

1. Heart disease
2. Ulcer
3. High BP
4. Headaches
5. Sleep disturbances
6. More illnesses
7. Job dissatisfaction
8. Depression
9. Exhaustion
10. Moodiness
11. Burnout

CAUSES OF STRESS

Many different things can cause stress -- from physical (such as fear of something dangerous) to emotional (such as worry over your family or job.) Identifying what may be causing you stress is often the first step in learning how to better deal with your stress. Some of the most common sources of stress are:

Survival Stress - You may have heard the phrase "fight or flight" before. This is a common response to danger in all people and animals. When you are afraid that someone or something may physically hurt you, your body naturally responds with a burst of energy so that you will be better able to survive the dangerous situation (fight) or escape it all together (flight). This is survival stress.


Internal Stress - Have you ever caught yourself worrying about things you can do nothing about or worrying for no reason at all? This is internal stress and it is one of the most important kinds of stress to understand and manage. Internal stress is when people make themselves stressed. This often happens when we worry about things we can't control or put ourselves in situations we know will cause us stress. Some people become addicted to the kind of hurried, tense, lifestyle that results from being under stress. They even look for stressful situations and feel stress about things that aren't stressful.


Environmental Stress - This is a response to things around you that cause stress, such as noise, crowding, and pressure from work or family. Identifying these environmental stresses and learning to avoid them or deal with them will help lower your stress level.
Fatigue and Overwork - This kind of stress builds up over a long time and can take a hard toll on your body. It can be caused by working too much or too hard at your job(s), school, or home. It can also be caused by not knowing how to manage your time well or how to take time out for rest and relaxation. This can be one of the hardest kinds of stress to avoid because many people feel this is out of their control. Later in this course we will show you that you DO have options and offer some useful tips for dealing with fatigue.

Downsizing. With downsizing seemingly a routine procedure in many companies, even the threat of layoffs can be stressful.

Moreover, after downsizing, firms often increase the workload of remaining employees, which leads to more stress.

Competition and change. With globalization has come increasing pressure to compete and innovate, which has led to an increase in re-engineering.

Technological change. Employees are often expected to learn new technologies without being given adequate training. Or they are not consulted when new technology is introduced. In addition, employees at all levels are flooded with information because of technological changes. As well, employees are frequently asked to be “on” for their jobs more hours each day: Pagers, voice mail, faxes, email, the Internet, and intranets make it possible to stay in touch with the workplace 24 hours a day.

Research by Professor Christina Cavanagh of the Richard Ivey

School of Business at the University of Western Ontario shows that email is an increasing cause of stress. Individuals receive an average of 80 or 90 emails daily, and devote an hour more each day to handling it than they did two years ago. The frustration is not just with quantity or time.

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNROME (Hans Selye)

Scientist Hans Selye (1907-1982) introduced theGeneral Adaptation Syndrome model in 1936 showing in three phases what the alleged effects of stress has on the body.

In his work, Selye - 'the father of stress research,' developed the theory that stress is a major cause of disease because chronic stress causes long-term chemical changes.

Stage 1. Alarm Reaction: Any physical or mental trauma will trigger an immediate set of reactions that combat the stress. Because the immune system is initially depressed, normal levels of resistance are lowered, making us more susceptible to infection and disease. If the stress is not severe or long-lasting, we bounce back and recover rapidly.
Stage 2: Resistance: Eventually, sometimes rather quickly, we adapt to stress, and there's actually a tendency to become more resistant to illness and disease. Our immune system works overtime for us during this period, trying to keep up with the demands placed upon it. We become complacent about our situation and assume that we can resist the effects of stress indefinitely. Therein lies the danger. Believing that we are immune from the effects of stress, we typically fail to do anything about it.
Stage 3: Exhaustion: Because our body is not able to maintain homeostasis and the long-term resistance needed to combat stress, we invariably develop a sudden drop in our resistance level. No one experiences exactly the same resistance and tolerance to stress, but everyone's immunity at some point collapses following prolonged stress reactions. Life sustaining mechanisms slow down and sputter, organ systems begin to break down, and stress-fighting reserves finally succumb to what Selye called "diseases of adaptation."
The General Adaptation Syndrome is thought to be the main reason why stress is such an abundant source of health problems. By changing the way our body normally functions, stress disrupts the natural balance - the homeostasis - crucial for well-being.